Pre-service Teachers’ Epistemological Understanding of the Language of Instruction: Can Education Policy Stop Kiswahili in Tanzania’s Classrooms?
Journal of Humanities & Social Science (JHSS),
Vol. 12 No. 2 (2023)
Abstract
Language-in-education policies in Sub-Saharan Africa is a topic that has attracted
several researchers. The adoption of alien languages as legitimate languages of
instruction is a matter that has been seriously challenged. Since the 1960s, the debate
in Tanzania has been on which language qualifies for the status of LOI. The answers
have been favouring either the alien language (English) or the dominant language
(Kiswahili). In 2014 the government launched the education policy, which declares
both English and Kiswahili as LOI in post-primary education. In the 2023 edition, the
policy was changed to declare English as the sole LOI in post-primary education. This
study examined pre-service teachers’ epistemological understanding of using the two
languages as LOI. The epistemological understanding model proposed by Kuhn (1991)
was used as a conceptual framework. The data from interview revealed that the
participants had different epistemological understandings about the issue. The study,
therefore, provides a firm standing that pre-service teachers should be prepared and
assisted to attain evaluatism understanding for a reasonable selection of LOI in a
multilingual community like in Tanzania
Keywords
Download Citation
Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)BibTeX
- Adamson, L. 2016. Language, Literacy and Learning in Tanzanian Secondary Schools. Education
- Development Trust.
- Allen, H.B. 1971. Principles of Informant Selection. American Speech, 46: 47–51.
- Baxter-Magolda, M. B. 1992. Knowing and Reasoning in College: Gender-Related Patterns in
- Students’ Intellectual Development. CA: Jossey-Bass.
- Bendixen, L. D. 2002. a Process Model of Epistemic Belief Change. In B. K. Hofer & P. R. Pintrich
- (Eds.): Personal Epistemology: The Psychology of Beliefs About Knowledge and Knowing (pp. 191–
- . Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
- Bendixen, L.D. & Rule, D. C. 2004. An Integrative Approach To Personal Epistemology: A
- Guiding Model. Educational Psychologist, 39(1): 69–80. https: //doi.org/10.1207/ s15326985
- ep3901_7.
- Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2006. Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in
- Psychology, 3: 77–101. https: //doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
- Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2012. Thematic Analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T.
- Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher (Eds.): APA Handbook of Research Methods in Psychology,
- Vol. 2. Research Designs: Quantitative, Qualitative, Neuropsychological, and Biological (pp. 57–
- . American Psychological Association. https: //doi.org/10.1037/13620–004.
- Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2013. Successful Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide for Beginners.
- London: Sage Publication.
- Brock-Utne, B. 2002. The Ambiguous Language of Instruction Policy in Tanzania and How Teachers
- Try to Cope With It. Florida: Presented at the CIES conference in Orland 6th to 10th March. Brock-Utne, B. 2007. Learning Through a Familiar Language Versus Learning Through a Foreign
- Language - a Look Into Some Secondary School Classrooms in Tanzania. International Journal
- of Education Development, 27(5): 487–498. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev. 2006.10.004.
- Brock-Utne, B. 2010. Education for All-in Whose Language. Oxford Review of Education, 27(1):
- –134. https: //doi.org/10.1080/03054980125577.
- Brock-Utne, B., Desai, Z. & Qorro, M. (eds) (2003. Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South
- Africa. Dar es Salaam: E&D Publishers.
- Brock-Utne, B., Desai, Z. & Qorro, M. (eds) (2004. Researching the Language of Instruction in
- Tanzania and South Africa. African Minds.
- Brock-Utne, B. & Halla, H. B. 2004. Language Policies and Practices in Tanzania and South
- Africa: Problems and Challenges. International Journal of Educational Development, 24(1): 67–
- https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2003.10.002.
- Bryman, A. 2016. Social Research Methods (5th ed.). London: Oxford University Press.
- Cummins, J. 1979. Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency, Linguistic Interdependence, the
- Optimum Age Question, and Other Matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19: 121–129.
- Creswell, J. W. 2009. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches
- (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
- Duell, O. K.. & Schommer-Aikins, M. 2001. Measures of People’s Beliefs About Knowledge and
- Learning. Educational Psychology Review, 13(4): 419–449. https: //doi.org/ 10.1023/ A:
- Gran, L. K. 2007. Language of Instruction in Tanzanian Higher Education: A Particular Focus on the
- University of Dar es salaam. Master Dissertation, University of Oslo.
- Guba, E. G. & Lincoln, Y. S. 1994. Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research. In N. K. Denzin,
- & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.): Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 1–17). CA: Sage Publications.
- Guest, G., Bunce, A. & Johnson, L. 2006. How Many Interviews Are Enough? An Experiment
- With Data Saturation and Variability. Field Methods, 18(1): 59–82.
- Hefter, M., H., Riess, W., Schmid, S., Fries, S., Renkl, A. & Berthold, K. 2015. Effects of a
- Training Intervention to Foster Precursors of Evaluativist Epistemological Understanding
- and Intellectual Values. Learning and Instruction, 39(6): 11–22. https: //doi.org/10.1016/
- j.learninstruc.2015.05.002.
- Hofer, B. K. 2001. Personal Epistemology Research: Implications for Learning and Teaching.
- Educational Psychology Review, 13(4): 353–383. https: //doi.org/10.1023/A: 1011965830686.
- Hofer, B. K. 2004. Epistemological Understanding as a Metacognitive Process: Thinking Aloud
- During Online Searching. Educational Psychologist, 39: 43–56. https: //doi.org/10.1207/
- s15326985ep3901_5.
- Hofer, B. K. & Pintrich, P. R. 1997. The Development of Epistemological Theories: Beliefs About
- Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning. Review of Educational Research,
- (1): 88–140. https: //doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001088.
- King, P. M. & Kitchener, K. S. 1994. Developing Reflective Judgement: Understanding and Promoting
- Intellectual Growth and Critical Thinking in Adolescents and Adults. Jossey-Bass King, P. M. & Kitchener, K. S. 2002. The Reflective Judgement Model: Twenty Years of Epistemic
- Cognition. In B. K. Hofer, & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.): Personal Epistemology: The Psychology of Beliefs
- About Knowledge and Knowing (pp. 37–61). NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
- Kinyaduka, B. D. & Kiwara, J. F. 2013. Language of Instruction and Its Impact on Quality of
- Education in Secondary Schools: Experiences from Morogoro Region, Tanzania. Journal of
- Education and Practice, 4(9): 90–95.
- Kuhn, D. 1991. The Skills of Argument. Cambridge University Press. https: //psycnet.apa.org/
- doi/10.1017/CBO9780511571350.
- Kuhn, D., Cheney, R. & Weinstock, M. 2000. The Development of Epistemological
- Understanding. Cognitive Development, 15(3): 309–328. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0885–
- (00)00030–7.
- Kuhn, D. & Udell, W. 2001. The Path to Wisdom. Educational Psychologists,36(4): 261–264. https:
- //doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3604_6.
- Louca, L., Elby, A., Hammer, D. & Kagey, T. 2004. Epistemological Resources: Applying a New
- Epistemological Framework to Science Instruction. Educational Psychologist, 39(1): 57–68.
- http: //dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3901_6.
- Malekela, G.A. 2003. English as a Medium of Instruction in Post-Primary Education in Tanzania:
- Is It a Fair Policy to the Learners? in B. Brock-Utne, Z. Desai, & M. Qorro (Eds.): Language of
- Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa, (pp. 102–111). Dar es Salaam: E&D Limited.
- Mardiha, S. M. & Alibakhshi, G. 2020. Teachers’ Personal Epistemological Beliefs and Their
- Conceptions of Teaching and Learning: A Correlational Study. Cogent Educ. 7: 1–14. doi:
- 1080/2331186X.2020.1763230.
- Metz, S. E. 2017. Epistemic Practices in Adults and Adolescents. PhD dissertation, University of
- Pennsylvania.
- Mkwizu, M. A. 2003. The Pedagogical Implications of Using English as a Medium of Instruction in
- Teaching Civics in Tanzania Secondary Schools. Report No. 5. Education in Africa—University of
- Oslo: Institute of Educational Research.
- Mlama, P. & Matteru, M.L. 1978. Haja ya Kutumia Kiswahili Kufundishia katika Elimu ya Juu.
- BAKITA.
- Muis, K. R. 2007. The Role of Epistemic Beliefs in Self-Regulated Learning. Educational
- Psychologist, 42(3): 173–190. https: //doi.org/10.1080/00461520701416306.
- Mwinsheikhe, H. 2008. Overcoming the Language Barrier: An In-Depth Study of the Strategies
- Used by Tanzania Secondary Science Teachers and Students Coping with the English-
- Kiswahili Dilemma. In M. Qorro, Z. Desai, & B. Brock-Utne (Eds.): LOITASA: Reflecting on
- Phase I and Entering Phase II (pp. 123–142). E&D Vision Publishing.
- Othman, Y.S. 2013. Yes, in My lifetime: Selected Works of Haroub Othman. Dar es Salaam. Mkuki
- na Nyota Publishers Ltd.
- Perry, W. G. 1970. Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years: A Scheme.
- New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Puja, G. K. 2003. Kiswahili and Higher Education in Tanzania: Reflections Based on a Sociological
- Study from Three Tanzanian University Campuses. In B. Brock-Utne, Z. Desai, & M. Qorro
- (Eds.): Language of instruction in Tanzania and South Africa (pp. 102–111). E&D Limited.
- Qorro, M. 2006. ‘Parents and Policymakers’ Instance of Foreign Languages as Media Education
- in Africa: Restricting Access to Quality-For Whose Benefit? in B. Brock-Utne, & I. Skattum
- (Eds.): Languages and education in Africa: A Comparative and Transdisciplinary Analysis. (pp. 57–
- . Oxford: Symposium books.
- Qorro, M. A. S. 2013. Language of Instruction in Tanzania: Why Are Research Findings Not
- Heeded? International Review of Education, 59(1): 29–45. DOM 0.! 007/s 11159–013–9329–5.
- Roy-Campbell, Z. M. 1995. Does the Medium of Instruction Really Matter? the Language
- Question in Africa: The Tanzania Experience. UTAFITI, 2(1): 22–39.
- Roy-Campbell, Z. M. & Qorro, M. A. S. 1987): A Survey of the Reading Competence in English of Secondary
- School Students in Tanzania. IDRC Sponsored Research Report, University of Dar es Salaam.
- Rubagumya, C. M. 1991. Language Promotion for Educational Purposes: The Example of Tanzania.
- International Review of Education, 37(1): 67–85. https: //doi.org/10.1007/ BF00598168.
- Rubagumya, C. M. 1994. Teaching and Researching Language in African Classrooms. Multilingual
- Matter.
- Rubagumya, C. M., Jones, K. & Mwansoko, H. 1999. Language for Learning and Teaching in
- Tanzania. ODA-funded Report.
- Rubagumya, C. M., Afitska, O., Clegg, J. & Kiliku, P. 2011. a Three-tier Citizenship: Can the
- state in Tanzania Guarantee Linguistic Human Rights? International Journal of Education,
- (1): 78–85. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2010.06.007.
- Schommer, M. 1998. The Influence of Age and Education on Epistemological Beliefs. British
- Journal of Educational Psychology, 68(4): 551–562. https: //doi.org/10.1111/j.2044–8279.1998.
- tb01311.x.
- Senkoro, F. E. 2005. Language of Instruction: The Forgotten Factor in Education Standards in Africa.
- Paper Presented at the CODESRIA General Assembly. Maputo, Mozambique.
- Sitoe, A.A. 2006. Epistemological Beliefs and Perceptions of Education in Africa. Groningen:
- University of Groningen Press.
- Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 2017. Language Rights and Bilingual Education. In: García, O., Lin, A.,
- May, S. (Eds.): Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education
- (pp. 51–63). Springer. https: //doi.org/10.1007/978–3–319–02258–1_6.
- Telli, G. 2014. The Language of Instruction Issue in Tanzania: Pertinent Determining Factors
- and Perceptions of Education Stakeholders. Journal of Languages and Culture, 5(1): 9–16.
- https: //doi.org/10.5897/JLC12.039.
- Tongco, M.D.C. 2007. Purposive Sampling as a Tool for Informant Selection. Ethnobotany
- Research & Applications, 5: 147–158.
- URT. 2014. Sera ya Elimu Na Mafunzo. Wizara ya Elimu na Mafunzo ya UfundiURT. 2023. Sera ya Elimu na Mafunzo 2014: Toleo la Mwaka 2023. Wizara ya Elimu, Sayansi na
- Teknolojia.
- Vuzo, M. 2005. Using English as a Medium of Instruction in Tanzania Secondary Schools:
- Problems and Prospects. In B. Brock-Utne, Z. Desai, & M. Qorro (Eds.): LOITASA Research in
- Progress (pp. 55–82). KAD Associates.
- Wilson, J. & Komba, S. C. 2012. The Link Between English Language Proficiency and Academic
- Performance. a Pedagogical Perspective in Tanzania Secondary Schools. World Journal of
- English Language, 2(4): 1–10. http: //dx.doi.org/10.5430/wjel.v2n4p1.
- ?yluk, N., Karpe, K.. & Urba?ski, M. 2022. The Development of Epistemological Understanding
- Revisited: Enhancing Reliability of the Tool by Using Only Abstract Items, Sage Open, 1–3
- https: //doi.org/10.1177/21582440221094602.
References
Adamson, L. 2016. Language, Literacy and Learning in Tanzanian Secondary Schools. Education
Development Trust.
Allen, H.B. 1971. Principles of Informant Selection. American Speech, 46: 47–51.
Baxter-Magolda, M. B. 1992. Knowing and Reasoning in College: Gender-Related Patterns in
Students’ Intellectual Development. CA: Jossey-Bass.
Bendixen, L. D. 2002. a Process Model of Epistemic Belief Change. In B. K. Hofer & P. R. Pintrich
(Eds.): Personal Epistemology: The Psychology of Beliefs About Knowledge and Knowing (pp. 191–
. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Bendixen, L.D. & Rule, D. C. 2004. An Integrative Approach To Personal Epistemology: A
Guiding Model. Educational Psychologist, 39(1): 69–80. https: //doi.org/10.1207/ s15326985
ep3901_7.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2006. Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative Research in
Psychology, 3: 77–101. https: //doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2012. Thematic Analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T.
Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher (Eds.): APA Handbook of Research Methods in Psychology,
Vol. 2. Research Designs: Quantitative, Qualitative, Neuropsychological, and Biological (pp. 57–
. American Psychological Association. https: //doi.org/10.1037/13620–004.
Braun, V. & Clarke, V. 2013. Successful Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide for Beginners.
London: Sage Publication.
Brock-Utne, B. 2002. The Ambiguous Language of Instruction Policy in Tanzania and How Teachers
Try to Cope With It. Florida: Presented at the CIES conference in Orland 6th to 10th March. Brock-Utne, B. 2007. Learning Through a Familiar Language Versus Learning Through a Foreign
Language - a Look Into Some Secondary School Classrooms in Tanzania. International Journal
of Education Development, 27(5): 487–498. https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev. 2006.10.004.
Brock-Utne, B. 2010. Education for All-in Whose Language. Oxford Review of Education, 27(1):
–134. https: //doi.org/10.1080/03054980125577.
Brock-Utne, B., Desai, Z. & Qorro, M. (eds) (2003. Language of Instruction in Tanzania and South
Africa. Dar es Salaam: E&D Publishers.
Brock-Utne, B., Desai, Z. & Qorro, M. (eds) (2004. Researching the Language of Instruction in
Tanzania and South Africa. African Minds.
Brock-Utne, B. & Halla, H. B. 2004. Language Policies and Practices in Tanzania and South
Africa: Problems and Challenges. International Journal of Educational Development, 24(1): 67–
https: //doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2003.10.002.
Bryman, A. 2016. Social Research Methods (5th ed.). London: Oxford University Press.
Cummins, J. 1979. Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency, Linguistic Interdependence, the
Optimum Age Question, and Other Matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19: 121–129.
Creswell, J. W. 2009. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches
(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Duell, O. K.. & Schommer-Aikins, M. 2001. Measures of People’s Beliefs About Knowledge and
Learning. Educational Psychology Review, 13(4): 419–449. https: //doi.org/ 10.1023/ A:
Gran, L. K. 2007. Language of Instruction in Tanzanian Higher Education: A Particular Focus on the
University of Dar es salaam. Master Dissertation, University of Oslo.
Guba, E. G. & Lincoln, Y. S. 1994. Competing Paradigms in Qualitative Research. In N. K. Denzin,
& Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.): Handbook of Qualitative Research (pp. 1–17). CA: Sage Publications.
Guest, G., Bunce, A. & Johnson, L. 2006. How Many Interviews Are Enough? An Experiment
With Data Saturation and Variability. Field Methods, 18(1): 59–82.
Hefter, M., H., Riess, W., Schmid, S., Fries, S., Renkl, A. & Berthold, K. 2015. Effects of a
Training Intervention to Foster Precursors of Evaluativist Epistemological Understanding
and Intellectual Values. Learning and Instruction, 39(6): 11–22. https: //doi.org/10.1016/
j.learninstruc.2015.05.002.
Hofer, B. K. 2001. Personal Epistemology Research: Implications for Learning and Teaching.
Educational Psychology Review, 13(4): 353–383. https: //doi.org/10.1023/A: 1011965830686.
Hofer, B. K. 2004. Epistemological Understanding as a Metacognitive Process: Thinking Aloud
During Online Searching. Educational Psychologist, 39: 43–56. https: //doi.org/10.1207/
s15326985ep3901_5.
Hofer, B. K. & Pintrich, P. R. 1997. The Development of Epistemological Theories: Beliefs About
Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning. Review of Educational Research,
(1): 88–140. https: //doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001088.
King, P. M. & Kitchener, K. S. 1994. Developing Reflective Judgement: Understanding and Promoting
Intellectual Growth and Critical Thinking in Adolescents and Adults. Jossey-Bass King, P. M. & Kitchener, K. S. 2002. The Reflective Judgement Model: Twenty Years of Epistemic
Cognition. In B. K. Hofer, & P. R. Pintrich (Eds.): Personal Epistemology: The Psychology of Beliefs
About Knowledge and Knowing (pp. 37–61). NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Kinyaduka, B. D. & Kiwara, J. F. 2013. Language of Instruction and Its Impact on Quality of
Education in Secondary Schools: Experiences from Morogoro Region, Tanzania. Journal of
Education and Practice, 4(9): 90–95.
Kuhn, D. 1991. The Skills of Argument. Cambridge University Press. https: //psycnet.apa.org/
doi/10.1017/CBO9780511571350.
Kuhn, D., Cheney, R. & Weinstock, M. 2000. The Development of Epistemological
Understanding. Cognitive Development, 15(3): 309–328. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0885–
(00)00030–7.
Kuhn, D. & Udell, W. 2001. The Path to Wisdom. Educational Psychologists,36(4): 261–264. https:
//doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3604_6.
Louca, L., Elby, A., Hammer, D. & Kagey, T. 2004. Epistemological Resources: Applying a New
Epistemological Framework to Science Instruction. Educational Psychologist, 39(1): 57–68.
http: //dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3901_6.
Malekela, G.A. 2003. English as a Medium of Instruction in Post-Primary Education in Tanzania:
Is It a Fair Policy to the Learners? in B. Brock-Utne, Z. Desai, & M. Qorro (Eds.): Language of
Instruction in Tanzania and South Africa, (pp. 102–111). Dar es Salaam: E&D Limited.
Mardiha, S. M. & Alibakhshi, G. 2020. Teachers’ Personal Epistemological Beliefs and Their
Conceptions of Teaching and Learning: A Correlational Study. Cogent Educ. 7: 1–14. doi:
1080/2331186X.2020.1763230.
Metz, S. E. 2017. Epistemic Practices in Adults and Adolescents. PhD dissertation, University of
Pennsylvania.
Mkwizu, M. A. 2003. The Pedagogical Implications of Using English as a Medium of Instruction in
Teaching Civics in Tanzania Secondary Schools. Report No. 5. Education in Africa—University of
Oslo: Institute of Educational Research.
Mlama, P. & Matteru, M.L. 1978. Haja ya Kutumia Kiswahili Kufundishia katika Elimu ya Juu.
BAKITA.
Muis, K. R. 2007. The Role of Epistemic Beliefs in Self-Regulated Learning. Educational
Psychologist, 42(3): 173–190. https: //doi.org/10.1080/00461520701416306.
Mwinsheikhe, H. 2008. Overcoming the Language Barrier: An In-Depth Study of the Strategies
Used by Tanzania Secondary Science Teachers and Students Coping with the English-
Kiswahili Dilemma. In M. Qorro, Z. Desai, & B. Brock-Utne (Eds.): LOITASA: Reflecting on
Phase I and Entering Phase II (pp. 123–142). E&D Vision Publishing.
Othman, Y.S. 2013. Yes, in My lifetime: Selected Works of Haroub Othman. Dar es Salaam. Mkuki
na Nyota Publishers Ltd.
Perry, W. G. 1970. Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years: A Scheme.
New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Puja, G. K. 2003. Kiswahili and Higher Education in Tanzania: Reflections Based on a Sociological
Study from Three Tanzanian University Campuses. In B. Brock-Utne, Z. Desai, & M. Qorro
(Eds.): Language of instruction in Tanzania and South Africa (pp. 102–111). E&D Limited.
Qorro, M. 2006. ‘Parents and Policymakers’ Instance of Foreign Languages as Media Education
in Africa: Restricting Access to Quality-For Whose Benefit? in B. Brock-Utne, & I. Skattum
(Eds.): Languages and education in Africa: A Comparative and Transdisciplinary Analysis. (pp. 57–
. Oxford: Symposium books.
Qorro, M. A. S. 2013. Language of Instruction in Tanzania: Why Are Research Findings Not
Heeded? International Review of Education, 59(1): 29–45. DOM 0.! 007/s 11159–013–9329–5.
Roy-Campbell, Z. M. 1995. Does the Medium of Instruction Really Matter? the Language
Question in Africa: The Tanzania Experience. UTAFITI, 2(1): 22–39.
Roy-Campbell, Z. M. & Qorro, M. A. S. 1987): A Survey of the Reading Competence in English of Secondary
School Students in Tanzania. IDRC Sponsored Research Report, University of Dar es Salaam.
Rubagumya, C. M. 1991. Language Promotion for Educational Purposes: The Example of Tanzania.
International Review of Education, 37(1): 67–85. https: //doi.org/10.1007/ BF00598168.
Rubagumya, C. M. 1994. Teaching and Researching Language in African Classrooms. Multilingual
Matter.
Rubagumya, C. M., Jones, K. & Mwansoko, H. 1999. Language for Learning and Teaching in
Tanzania. ODA-funded Report.
Rubagumya, C. M., Afitska, O., Clegg, J. & Kiliku, P. 2011. a Three-tier Citizenship: Can the
state in Tanzania Guarantee Linguistic Human Rights? International Journal of Education,
(1): 78–85. http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2010.06.007.
Schommer, M. 1998. The Influence of Age and Education on Epistemological Beliefs. British
Journal of Educational Psychology, 68(4): 551–562. https: //doi.org/10.1111/j.2044–8279.1998.
tb01311.x.
Senkoro, F. E. 2005. Language of Instruction: The Forgotten Factor in Education Standards in Africa.
Paper Presented at the CODESRIA General Assembly. Maputo, Mozambique.
Sitoe, A.A. 2006. Epistemological Beliefs and Perceptions of Education in Africa. Groningen:
University of Groningen Press.
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. 2017. Language Rights and Bilingual Education. In: García, O., Lin, A.,
May, S. (Eds.): Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education
(pp. 51–63). Springer. https: //doi.org/10.1007/978–3–319–02258–1_6.
Telli, G. 2014. The Language of Instruction Issue in Tanzania: Pertinent Determining Factors
and Perceptions of Education Stakeholders. Journal of Languages and Culture, 5(1): 9–16.
https: //doi.org/10.5897/JLC12.039.
Tongco, M.D.C. 2007. Purposive Sampling as a Tool for Informant Selection. Ethnobotany
Research & Applications, 5: 147–158.
URT. 2014. Sera ya Elimu Na Mafunzo. Wizara ya Elimu na Mafunzo ya UfundiURT. 2023. Sera ya Elimu na Mafunzo 2014: Toleo la Mwaka 2023. Wizara ya Elimu, Sayansi na
Teknolojia.
Vuzo, M. 2005. Using English as a Medium of Instruction in Tanzania Secondary Schools:
Problems and Prospects. In B. Brock-Utne, Z. Desai, & M. Qorro (Eds.): LOITASA Research in
Progress (pp. 55–82). KAD Associates.
Wilson, J. & Komba, S. C. 2012. The Link Between English Language Proficiency and Academic
Performance. a Pedagogical Perspective in Tanzania Secondary Schools. World Journal of
English Language, 2(4): 1–10. http: //dx.doi.org/10.5430/wjel.v2n4p1.
?yluk, N., Karpe, K.. & Urba?ski, M. 2022. The Development of Epistemological Understanding
Revisited: Enhancing Reliability of the Tool by Using Only Abstract Items, Sage Open, 1–3
https: //doi.org/10.1177/21582440221094602.